Nestlé and Nestlé Malaysia

Nestlã © and Nestlã © Malaysia Official SUMMARY The current organization that has chosen is Nestlã © (Malaysia) Berhad. This report begins with a presentation and a concise history about Nestlã © and Nestlã © Malaysia. This report incorporates the vision and mission of Nestlã © and how Nestlã © will accomplish them. This report additionally incorporates a short outline of Nestlã ©s showcase division with models gave. It talks about the qualities and issues of the organization followed by the answers for understand the issues. At long last, there are a few proposals suggested by our gathering and a finish of this entire report. Chapter by chapter list Evaluation Criteria..2 Written falsification Report..3 Official Summary. 4 Table of Contents..5 Content Introduction..6 Market Segmentation7 Strengths8-9 Issues and Solutions.9-11 Recommendations..11-12 Conclusion.12 References.13 Appendix14 CONTENT Presentation Nestlã © is a worldwide organization and is of the universes biggest in food and refreshments industry. Heinrich Nestlã ©, whom otherwise called Henri Nestlã ©, was the author of Nestlã © Company (Nestle. 2010, Introduction, Nestlã © [Online] accessible at www.nestle.com), which headquarter is in Vevey, Switzerland in the time of 1866. Nestlã © Malaysia was built up in the time of 1912 in Malaysia as Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company. Nestlã © Malaysia head office is presently situated in Mutiara Damansara, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, and has 6 deals workplaces with in excess of 5000 representatives across the country. Furthermore, Nestlã © makes its own items in 7 plants and markets more than 300 Halal items the country over. (Nestlã ©. 2010, Nestlã © in Malaysia, Nestlã © [Online] accessible at www.nestle.com.my) Nestlã © represented considerable authority in nourishments and drinks industry, a couple of the many notable brands Nestlã © has in Malaysia incorporates Maggi , Nescafã ©, Milo, Kit Kat, Nesvita (once in the past known as Nestum), just as pet consideration items, for example, Purina and Friskies. Nestlã ©s vision (Nestlã ©. 2010, Corporate Philosophy, Nestlã © [Online] accessible at www.nestle.com.my) is to be the pioneer in Nutrition, Health, and Wellness Company by conveying world-class results of the most elevated steady quality, unwavering quality, and comfort dependent on business greatness standards all through the activity. Nestlã ©s mission (The Nestlã © Corporate Essence Our foundations and wings 2007, p.4) is to upgrade the personal satisfaction with great food and refreshments, all over the place, so individuals could carry on with a more advantageous life. So as to accomplish their vision and strategic, Nutrition Research Center (Nestlã ©. 2010, Research Development, Nestlã © [Online] accessible at www.nestle.co.jp) gives incredible consideration to comprehend the shoppers dietary and enthusiastic needs and use todays world better science and innovation than produce excellent items to the world. MARKET SEGMENTATION Each shopper has various requirements. Henceforth, it is beyond the realm of imagination to expect to fulfill each client utilizing an equivalent advertising division, which is otherwise called mass showcasing by offering a solitary promoting blend to all customers. Besides, as a worldwide market has gotten incredibly serious, and purchasers are progressively requesting which is extremely hard to fulfill. Accordingly, Nestlã © utilizes target showcasing for each item to their clients. For instance, in buyer item, Nestlã © infant milk item, for example, Nestlã © Neslac Excella Gold is portioned distinctly to babies and little children. Be that as it may, child doesn't have the limit or capacity to purchase the food they required. Along these lines, to advertise this infant milk item, Nestlã © doesn't completely concentrating on babys fundamental need which is hunger, yet in addition to the babys guardians as far as how the nourishment gave will give their kids the most ideal favorable circumstances in the childrens life and advancement. Another model is Nestlã © Milo, the milk drink with chocolate and malt. Wear Howart, the official executive of Nestlã © and Singapore Coffee and Beverages asserted that Milo stays mainstream among the youthful and has a 90% (The Sun. 2010, Milo with ProtoMalt to traverse the day, Sun2Surf [Online] accessible at www.sun2surf.com) piece of the pie among chocolate malt drinks in Malaysia. Other than the adolescents, elderly folks individuals and dynamic individuals are additionally part of the objective markets of Nestlã © Milo drinks. Notwithstanding, from the outset, Nestlã ©s business was propelled universally and understood the way that food items must be considered to the nearby eating and social conduct because of the specific countrys practices, societies, and conventions. In this manner, (1) Nestlã © has consistently indicated regard for differing societies and conventions and attempting to incorporate itself however much as could be expected into the way of life and customs, adding additionally to the nearby condition its own arrangement of qualities. Along these lines, (2) Nestlã © grasps social and social assorted variety and doesn't segregate based on birthplace, nationality, religion, race, sexual orientation or age. (The Nestlã © Management and Leadership Principles 2006, p.9) Qualities Nestlã © is a global organization, also Nestlã © is likewise the biggest business in nourishments and refreshments, thus Nestlã © has each ability to draw in more customers contrast with the neighborhood organizations. Because of its high piece of the pie and high money related influence, Nestlã © likewise has more noteworthy monetary ability in adjusting existing items as far as bundling, the equation of the specific item and others or making new items, just as to adjust or overhaul most recent data framework innovation in assembling, request handling and other related fields so as to support their upper hand by conveying lower cost of products and ventures than their rivals in this powerful condition. Furthermore, Nestlã © has a significant viable key advertising ability. For instance, Nestlã © Maggi moment noodles has constructed a steady patent and is very notable in numerous nations particularly in Australia and Malaysia. This is on the grounds that Maggi moment noodles is anything but difficult to be separated from its rivals, for example, Cintan Instant Noodles. In addition, Nestlã © has likewise built up an exceptionally solid brand name for Maggi moment noodles on account of solid publicizing, which has instilled the vast majority of the individuals to name different brands of moment noodles as Maggi moment noodle rather than the brands unique name. Besides, Nestlã © additionally has a solid Research and Development tasks that encourages the organization to accomplish cross-fringe cooperative energy, for example, bundling its worldwide items to nearby inclinations. Nestlã © additionally stresses on utilizing todays data innovation, which Nestlã © trust it will introduce a drawn out open door for them to smoothen the companys activity or to expand effectiveness in bundling, among some other companys tasks. Moreover, Nestlã © additionally has better mechanical ability, for example, to revamp the current items to be increasingly inventive, higher caliber, and a lot more beneficial item as Nestlã © understood that buyer focused development and redesign is the most significant mainstay of Nestlã ©s overall technique, which would quicken Nestlã © to progress from great to better. (The Nestlã © Corporate Essence Our underlying foundations and wings 2007, p.34) And due to Nestlã ©s responsibilities, more individuals trust on th e items conveyed by Nestlã © as a result of its legitimate wellbeing and security measures. In addition, Nestlã © additionally has incredible initiative qualities. The pioneers, for example, the top officials, branch directors, and others are capable in building association capacity. For instance, the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Nestlã © S.A., Peter Brabeck, (Castelarhost. 2005, Nestlã © LC1 S.W.O.T Analysis, Castelar Articles [Online] accessible at www.articles.castelarhost.com) accentuates inner development around the world, which intends to accomplish higher volumes of deals by enhancing the items, redesign existing items, and improve new items, to keep pace in the business in light of quickly changing of buyer desires. Issues AND SOLUTIONS Nestlã © produces several items, has a worldwide system of providers, and different disseminations and selling channels. Henceforth, to foresee and react in this quickly changing in showcase request condition is troublesome. When determining a market request, Nestlã © will require data to identify shifts popular early so they could alter for patterns and send the correct messages to the providers, shippers, and dispersion focuses before they are flood with undesirable or imperfect merchandise or deficiencies. (Manhattan Associates. 2010, Planning and estimating: Anticipate and Respond to Changes in Demand, Manhattan Associates [Online] at www.manh.com) In any case, each organization has its most fragile connections, so is Nestlã ©. The most vulnerable connections are issues they can't control. (Labs. 2010, Supply Chain Efficiency Starts at the Top, Food Engineering [Online] accessible at www.foodengineeringmag.com) Firstly, the most widely recognized issue is the wellsprings of flexibly of crude materials. This is because of an abrupt and sudden expanded sought after, which will cause outrageous flexibly deficiencies for products that will bring about significant cost increments. For example, awful climate and catastrophic events have consistently been an issue influencing approaching crude materials. Also, the error of requests got in stock. No organization can ever accomplish the necessity of zero imperfections particularly in nourishments and drinks industry. For instance, when the buying branch of Nestlã © requested 10,000 of blended berries yogurt from its vendor, however what the retailer got was just 8,000 of blended berri es yogurt, or on another event they may got imperfect inventories. Another model is, when Nestlã © tells its seller that they required additional sets of a specific item to be delivered immediately in light of unforeseen expanded sought after, however truth be told, the provider may as of now has orders from different cus

Why Stereotypes Are a Good Topic For Your Academic Research Paper?

Why Stereotypes Are a Good Topic For Your Academic Research Paper?In preparing your academic research paper, you'll have a stereotype essay topic on which to base your writing. A stereotype essay, or a stereotype essay topic, is the name given to an essay that discusses a particular group of people, usually because of their appearance, race, religion, etc.It can be argued that the purpose of such a stereotyped topic is to display how people's beliefs, prejudices, and general judgments of others are based on a pre-conceived impression based on their appearance, whether a specific way or style of dress, gender, ethnic origin, etc. Using a stereotype essay topic, especially in your academic research paper, will make it more meaningful and accurate to the readers.Stereotypes have been around for centuries. Much has been written about them throughout history. The most famous stereotyping examples of course are those that involve women and blacks.Examples of a generic stereotype theme can include a show where the lead character is male and female characters exist in their place. This is most often found in the field of comedy and often becomes hilarious when a female character in the story is forced to participate. This makes the girls more likeable and allows us to take notice at how we think.A specific stereotypical topic can be used in an academic paper when the subject is a particular type of person. For example, if your research is about one particular race or ethnicity, a very stereotypical example of this might be 'White Trash'.This may come from writing about the worst players on professional sports teams, something that many people enjoy doing when they visit professional sports teams to watch games. This example will use specific race and ethnic details to make the situation more real and believable.Today, many people see it as acceptable to comment on these stereotypical examples, and sometimes it would be a good idea to use them as a basis for an academic paper. If a writer can use it effectively in their piece, it can give them a better understanding of the situation as well as provide an interesting contrast with other examples of stereotypical topics.One good thing about using this type of essay topic is that you can apply it to just about any situation. Whether it's a political issue, a business issue, a social issue, a corporate issue, etc., you can find a stereotype topic that is relevant to the situation and will allow you to create an essay that will impress the reader. It's easy to come up with, and gives you some help when you need it.

Supervised Image Classification Techniques

Regulated Image Classification Techniques Presentation In this part, a survey of Web-Based GIS Technology and Satellite picture characterization strategies. Area 2.2 presents an audit of Web-Based GIS Technology.in segment 2.3 Satellite pictures characterization procedures are reviewed.In segment 2.4 presents the related work .segment 2.5 presents employments of online GIS applications in genuine world. Area 2.6 presents accessible business web GIS destinations. Segment 2.7 audits the kinds of Geospatial Web Services (OGC) 2.3 Image Classification Picture characterization is a method to consequently classify all pixels in an Image of a territory into land spread classes. Regularly, multispectral information are utilized to Perform the characterization of the ghastly example present inside the information for every pixel is utilized as the numerical reason for order. This idea is managed under the Broad subject, to be specific, Pattern Recognition. Phantom example acknowledgment alludes to the Family of arrangement strategies that uses this pixel-by-pixel ghastly data as the reason for mechanized land spread grouping. Spatial example acknowledgment includes the arrangement of picture pixels based on the spatial relationship with pixels encompassing them. Picture arrangement procedures are gathered into two kinds, to be specific administered and unsupervised[1]. The arrangement procedure may likewise incorporate highlights, Such as, land surface height and the dirt sort that are not gotten from the picture. Two classifications o f order are contained various sorts of strategies can be found in fig Fig. 1 Flow Chart demonstrating Image Classification[1] 2.3 Basic strides to apply Supervised Classification An administered characterization calculation requires a preparation test for each class, that is, an assortment of information guides known toward have originated from the class of intrigue. The grouping is in this way dependent on how close a point to be ordered is to each preparation test. We will not endeavor to characterize the word close other than to state that both Geometric and factual separation measures are utilized in pragmatic example acknowledgment calculations. The preparation tests are illustrative of the known classes important to the investigator. Arrangement strategies that hand-off on utilization of preparing designs are called directed grouping methods[1]. The three fundamental advances (Fig. 2) engaged with an ordinary regulated order technique are as per the following: Fig. 2. Essential advances managed order [1] (I) Training stage: The expert recognizes agent preparing territories and creates numerical depictions of the ghastly marks of each land spread kind of enthusiasm for the scene. (ii) The order stag(Decision Rule)e: Each pixel in the picture informational index IS classified into the land spread class it most intently looks like. On the off chance that the pixel is deficiently like any preparation informational collection it is normally marked Unknown. (iii) The yield stage: The outcomes might be utilized in various manners. Three common types of yield items are topical maps, tables and computerized information documents which become input information for GIS. The yield of picture arrangement becomes contribution for GIS for spatial investigation of the territory. Fig. 2 portrays the progression of tasks to be performed during picture order of remotely detected information of a territory which eventually prompts make database as a contribution for GIS. Plate 6 shows the land use/land spread shading coded picture, which is a yield of picture 2.3.1 Decision Rule in picture classiffication After the marks are characterized, the pixels of the picture are arranged into classes dependent on the marks by utilization of a grouping choice standard. The choice standard is a numerical calculation that, utilizing information contained in the mark, plays out the genuine arranging of pixels into unmistakable class values[2]. There are various incredible directed classifiers dependent on the insights, which are ordinarily, utilized for different applications. A couple of them are a base separation to implies technique, normal separation strategy, parallelepiped strategy, most extreme probability strategy, adjusted greatest probability strategy, Baysians technique, choice tree arrangement, and discriminant capacities. Choice Rule can be ordered into two kinds: 1-Parametric Decision Rule: A parametric choice standard is prepared by the parametric marks. These marks are characterized by the mean vector and covariance network for the information record estimations of the pixels in the marks. At the point when a parametric choice principle is utilized, each pixel is alloted to a class since the parametric choice space is continuous[3] 2-Nonparametric Decision Rule A nonparametric choice standard did not depend on insights; subsequently, it is free of the properties of the information. On the off chance that a pixel is situated inside the limit of a nonparametric signature, at that point this choice guideline doles out the pixel to the marks class. Essentially, a nonparametric choice standard decides if the pixel is situated within nonparametric mark boundary[3] . 2.3.2 directed calculation for picture classiffication The standards and working calculations of all these directed classifiers are determined as follow : Parallelepiped Classification Parallelepiped arrangement, in some cases otherwise called box choice principle, or level-cut strategies, depend on the scopes of qualities inside the preparation information to characterize locales inside a multidimensional information space. The otherworldly estimations of unclassified pixels are anticipated into information space; those that fall inside the locales characterized by the preparation information are doled out to the proper classifications [1]. In this technique a parallelepiped-like (i.e., hyper-square shape) subspace is characterized for each class. Utilizing the preparation information for each class the restrictions of the parallelepiped subspace can be characterized either by the base and greatest pixel esteems in the given class, or by a specific number of standard deviations on either side of the mean of the preparation information for the given class . The pixels lying inside the parallelepipeds are labeled to this class. Figure portrays this basis in instance s of two-dimensional element space[4]. Fig. 3. Usage of the parallelepiped arrangement strategy for three classes utilizing two ghostly groups, after[4]. Least Distance Classification for directed arrangement, these gatherings are framed by estimations of pixels inside the preparation fields characterized by the analyst.Each bunch can be spoken to by its centroid, regularly characterized as its mean worth. As unassigned pixels are considered for task to one of the few classes, the multidimensional separation to each bunch centroid is determined, and the pixel is then doled out to the nearest group. Along these lines the arrangement continues by continually utilizing the base good ways from an offered pixel to a bunch centroid characterized by the preparation information as the otherworldly sign of an educational class. Least separation classifiers are immediate in idea and in usage however are not broadly utilized in remote detecting work. In its least difficult structure, least separation order isn't constantly precise; there is no arrangement for obliging contrasts in inconstancy of classes, and a few classes may cover at their edges. It is conceivable to devise progressively advanced adaptations of the essential methodology simply sketched out by utilizing diverse separation measures and various strategies for characterizing bunch centroids.[1] Fig. 4. Least separation classifier[1] The Euclidean separation is the most widely recognized separation metric utilized in low dimensional informational collections. It is otherwise called the L2 standard. The Euclidean separation is the standard way where separation is estimated in genuine world. In this sense, Manhattan separation will in general be progressively powerful to boisterous information. Euclidean separation = (1) Where x and y are m-dimensional vectors and indicated by x = (x1, x2, x3 xm) and y = (y1, y2, y3 ym) speak to the m trait estimations of two classes. [5]. While Euclidean measurement is helpful in low measurements, it doesnt function admirably in high measurements and for clear cut factors. Mahalanobis Distance Mahalanobis Distance is like Minimum Distance, then again, actually the covariance framework is utilized in the condition. Mahalanobis separation is a notable factual separation work. Here, a proportion of fluctuation can be consolidated into the separation metric legitimately. Mahalanobis separation is a separation measure between two focuses in the space characterized by at least two connected factors. In other words, Mahalanobis separation takes the relationships inside an informational index between the variable into thought. In the event that there are two non-corresponded factors, the Mahalanobis separation between the purposes of the variable in a 2D disperse plot is same as Euclidean separation. In numerical terms, the Mahalanobis separation is equivalent to the Euclidean separation when the covariance framework is the unit grid. This is actually the situation at that point if the two sections of the normalized information grid are symmetrical. The Mahalanobis separation reli es upon the covariance framework of the property and satisfactorily represents the connections. Here, the covariance network is used to address the impacts of cross-covariance between two parts of arbitrary variable[6, 7]. D=(X-Mc)T (COVc)- 1(X-Mc) ( 2) where D = Mahalanobis Distance, c = a specific class, X = estimation vector of the applicant pixel Mc = mean vector of the mark of class c, Covc = covariance network of the pixels in the mark of class c, Covc-1 = backwards of Covc, T = transposition function[3]. Most extreme Likelihood Classification In nature the classes that we order display characteristic variety in their otherworldly examples. Further changeability is included by the impacts of fog, topographic shadowing, framework commotion, and the impacts of blended pixels. Therefore, remote detecting pictures only from time to time record frightfully unadulterated classes; all the more commonly, they show a scope of brightnesss in each band. The characterization techniques thought about hitherto don't co

Character Analysis of August Wilsons Fences - 879 Words

In the play Fences, by August Wilson, the main character, Troy Maxson is involved in numerous relationships with family members throughout the entire eight years that the story takes place. Troy is a father, husband, and brother to other characters in the play. Unfortunately for Troy, a strong-minded and aggressive man, he constantly complicates the relationships with his family members. Troys hurtful actions and words make it nearly impossible for him to sustain healthy relationships with not only his two sons, but also his wife and brother. Perhaps the most important and fulfilling relationship a man can be involved in is one with his own flesh and blood. At the beginning of the play, we learn that Troy has two sons, Lyons and Cory.†¦show more content†¦It is obvious to the audience that Troy and Cory simply do not get along. The two are constantly bickering, mostly about Corys dream to play football at the college level. Since playing baseball did not get Troy anywhere, h e feels that football will not benefit Cory and that Cory should get recruited in how to fix cars or something where he can make a living (8). Troy constantly denounces Corys dream and pressures his son to quit the highschool football team so that he can work at the local grocery store. The verbal abuse of Cory by Troy is enough to make Cory question whether or not his own father even likes him, but it is not until after Troys affair with Alberta is out in the open that Troy and Corys unhealthy relationship reaches a whole new level. After finding out about Troys affair, Cory stands up to his father in order to protect his mother during an altercation between Troy and Rose. Troy nearly hits Cory, but he is able to stop himself before threatening Cory by saying, You better stay away from me, boy (72). Cory and Troys relationship following this incident is practically nonexistant until the time of their last fight. During that fight, after two months of staying out of his fathers way, Cory has finally had enough of Troys verbal abuse and once again stands up to him. This quarrel ends with Troy nearly hitting Cory with a baseball bat, but he is once again able to stopShow MoreRelatedThe Interpretation Of August Wilsons Fences By Denzel Wilson724 Words   |  3 PagesAugust Wilsons’ play â€Å"Fences† gave the American stage one of the most renowned characters. As Wilson originally writes in the play, Troy Maxson, who is an uneducated sanitation worker and a former Negro League Baseball player is depicted as a multi-faceted tragic figure from the mid-1950s Pittsburgh of Wilson’s childhood. 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Next, students read the play Fences by Pulitzer Prize winner August Wilson and analyze the role of stories within in the story to create tension and advance the plot. Fences is the foundation for the unit’s cornerstone task: after ranking and discussing important lines in the play, student perform them, and reflect on the impact of the important lines

Whether the Class Conflict Inevitable Free Essay Example, 1750 words

It is evidently clear from the discussion that class conflict can turn into volatile situations especially during periods of crisis that involve politics or the economy because these often lead towards either attempts to overthrow long-established elites or elites attempting to repress the masses in a bid to retain their political and economic power. Korotayev and Zinkina state that under such circumstances, a class conflict might lead to such actions as extreme repression, the restriction of freedoms, and extreme violence that might result in the deaths of many individuals within society. Long-held grievances come to the fore during these situations and it is necessary to ensure that studies be conducted on these grievances before they explode into real conflicts. A better understanding of problems that lead to a class conflict can be achieved through the survey method. Surveys conducted in the United States have shown that a large number of individuals within that society believe that class conflict has surged as a result of government policies that are favorable to the economic elite. The ability of economic elites to influence government policy in their favor is based on their sponsoring of powerful lobbies that ensure their interests are well protected. We will write a custom essay sample on Whether the Class Conflict Inevitable or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now American masses cannot afford these actions and it results in their being taken advantage of by the economic elite. Under these circumstances, class conflict is inevitable because, in a society that prides itself inequality, the gap between the wealthy and the poor is fast increasing, making even government policies ineffective in curbing it. It is stated that in most developed societies, it is acknowledged that wealth inequality is part of their societies and that it needs to be addressed early to ensure that serious conflicts do not arise as a result. However, despite the welfare programs governments in developed countries to ensure that the disadvantaged also enjoy the benefits of capitalism, they have not succeeded in addressing inequalities run that.

Walt Disney at the Beginning - 978 Words

You walk into the living room and you hear the famous Disney music coming from the television that your child is placed in front of. You start to wonder where did your favorite Disney movies came from? How did they come about into the human world or how were they produced? What was Walt Disney’s childhood like when he was younger that made him want to animate and put together cartoons and movies? Where did his career start off from and how did he get to such a place. But the more important question, who is taking over now that Walt Disney has passed? Who is keeping on the traditions of Mickey and all of his famous characters? These are some questions that I set out to look more upon of Walt Disney. In what I’ve researched is what is going to be presented to you in Walt Disney: A Key to Childhood Hearts. On December 5th. 1901 in the town of Chicago, Illinois a baby boy was born with the name of Walter Elias Disney, or as we know, Walt Disney. Growing up as a child Waltâ €™s father, Elias, was a very strict and religious man. His father would physically beat him and his siblings if any sort of toys, drawings, or any type of entertainment was found around the house. His wife, Flora, feared him too. When Walt was born his father was a construction worker and his mother a stay at home mom to five Disney children. His father later then took up a farm in Marceline, Missouri where they then moved to. Walter always loved all the animals on the farm and felt like they were his friends.Show MoreRelatedEssay on The Real Walt Disney1080 Words   |  5 PagesThe Real Walt Disney Walt Disney as a real man. Walter Elias Disney was born on December 5, 1901 in Chicago, Illinois to his parents, Elias Disney an Irish Canadian and Flora Call Disney, a German American. Walt was one of four children. Walt and his brother Roy and sister Ruth grew up in Chicago, where they attended Benton Grammar School together. He worked hard throughout his schooling and helped support his family during difficult times. When Walt was 23 years old, he and his sweetheart, LillyRead MoreWalt Disney : A Pioneer Of Cartoon Films And As The Founder Of The Disney Company957 Words   |  4 Pagesimagination ¨ (Disney, 2014). Walter Elias  ¨Walt ¨ Disney is famous as a pioneer of cartoon films and as the founder of The Walt Disney Company. He was an American motion-picture producer, television producer, and a showman. Disney came from humble beginnings but ended up transforming the entertainment industry. Walt Disney had a challenging childhood, grew up and chose a career that would l iven up his life, achieved many accomplishments, and left a legacy for years to come. 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Biology Molecule Essay Example For Students

Biology Molecule Essay Unit 1 -man is high 50s to 60% water -distribution in body divided into 3compartments: 1) intracellular 28 litres 2) intercellular/interstitial fluid 11 litres 80% 3) blood plasma 3 litres 20% -women contain less water thanmen -organisms can contain 60-80% water -bacteria have lots of water -fat cellshave little -waters properties result from its structure and molecularinteractions -water is polar -polar covalent bonds and asymmetrical shape giveit opposite charges on opposite sides -electrons spend more time around O givingH a slight positive charge -hydrogen bonds form between the oxygen of onemolecule and the hydrogen of another -cohesion: substance being held together byhydrogen bonds -hydrogen bonds are transient yet enough is always held togetherto give water more structure than almost any other liquid -beads and meniscusformed by cohesion (also helps upward transport of water in plants) -adhesioncounteracts downward pull of gravity -water has greater surface tension thanmo st liquids -surface molecules are hydrogen bonded to molecules below andaround them -surface tension can hinder life (i.e. beading in the alveoli oflungs) -makes water unwettable -surfactants used to counteract this -waterhas a high specific heat which allows it to resist extreme temperature changes-has a high heat of vaporization that causes it to require alot of energy tochange states -when sweating, heat energy is utilized to change states fromliquid to gas, causing a drop in temperature -as a solid water is less densethan as a liquid and will float -charged regions of molecules have an electricalattraction to charged ions -water surrounds ions separating and shielding themfrom one another -polar compounds are generally soluble -charged regions ofwater are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules-polar molecules are miscible in other polar liquids -most water moleculesdont dissociate (~ 1/554 million do) -hydrogen atom in hydrogen bond betweenthe two water molecules may shift from the oxygen atom it is covalently bondedto the unshared orbitals of the oxygen that it is hydrogen bonded to -hydrogenion is transferred creating a hydronium ion and leaving a hydroxide ion -thesolvent is water itself -at equilibrium water is not dissociated -at equilibriumin pure water at 25oC = -pH of this solution is 7 (neutral) -high pH= low acidity -acids are substances that increase the relative and removeOH- because it tends to combine with H+ to form water if * , it isacidic and has a pH between 0 and 7 -bases are substances that reduce therelative in a solution -it may increase the -if * , it isbasic and has a pH greater than 7 -buffers are important in the body to keep thepH range between 6 and 8 -pH of blood is between 7.34 and 7.44 -mustnt shiftbelow 7.2 or acidosis will occur -some body zones may have a pH as low as 0.5 oras high as 10 -buffers minimize sudden changes and are a combo of hydrogendonors and hydrogen acceptors -ions are a ccepted when in excess and donated whenin short supply -in biological systems an example is the bicarbonate buffer -inresponse to a rise in pH, the carbonic acid dissociates to form a carbonate ionand a hydrogen proton -if there is a drop, it is reversed (pH up = to right, pHdown = to left) -equilibrium is established but it is always moving to the leftor the right -a balance is the optimum pH -other body buffers include proteinmolecules which donate and accept amino acids to stabilize pH -most of the restof organisms is made up of carbon based compounds like carbs, lipids, proteins,nucleic acids -carbon compounds are known as organic -vitalism is the belief ina life force outside the control of chemical laws -this has been disproved aswater, ammonia, hydrogen and methane have been combined in a lab to form organicsubstances -C+O+H = carbohydrates -C+H+N = amino acids, urea, proteins, lipids-carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks -each has 4 valences wherebonds can form -carbon chains form the skeleton of most organic molecules -maybe straight or branched, long or short, or in closed rings -hydrocarbons containonly hydrogen and carbon -they form when organic matter decomposes andfunctional groups break off leaving a skeleton -hydrocarbon chains, branches,and rings can be modified by other elements which are joined on in a particularmatter -these are components of organic molecules that are often involved inchemical reactions -they replace 1 or more hydrogens in a hydrocarbonCarbohydrates: -sugars and starches -nonsugars: plant starch, animal starch,cellulose, chitin -come from pasta, rice, flour, fruit, syrups -important sourceof energy, can be oxidized to release energy, improves your mood -contain C, H,and O, with generally 2 times as much H as O -sugar names usually end with -ose,and are named depending on the number of carbons in them (e.g. triose, pentose)-6 carbon sugars, hexoses, are most important -general formula is C6H12O6, andin living systems, the state is aqueous -solids exist in chains, and liquids asrings -the molecular formula is the same for different hexoses, but thestructural formula differs -other isomers of glucose can be reorganized by cellsinto alpha glucose, and then oxidized -glucose is the major nutrient for cellsand its carbon skeleton is raw material for the synthesis of other organicsDisaccharides: -2 hexose sugars-most common are: sucrose, lactose and maltose-glucose + glucose = maltose + water -glucose + fructose = sucrose + water-glucose + galactose = lactose + water -this process is known as condensation ordehydration synthesis -synthesis of disaccharides doesnt happen in the humanbody, but usually they are eaten and digested, through a process known ashydrolysis or disaccharidases Polysaccharides: -these are macromolecules thatare made by condensation when monosaccharides are joined -general molecularformula isC6H12O5 -common polysaccharides are amylose, amylopectin (plantstarch), glycogen ( animal starch), cellulose (cell wall material), chitin(leathery covering of invertebrates) -plants use glucose to grow, and extra isstored in the roots in a soluble form which is then reactivated in the spring this reactivates the growing process year after year -animal starch is stored inspecial cells (average person has a 24 hour supply) and can readily be convertedinto glucose for use -cellulose and chitin are structural carbohydrates -amyloseis formed when glucose molecules join in a 1-4 linkage pattern -first carbon ofone glucose links to the fourth carbon of another -this is a covalent bond or aglycosiolic link -bond is angular and forms a spiral called an alpha helix -ifit branches, amylopectin is formed -cellulose is a 1-4 linkage of beta glucose-this creates a straight strand and not a helix -these bonds are rigid andrequire special enzymes (cellulase) to break them -the position of the betaglucose molecules alternates Lipids: -humans rarely eat pure lipids -cellmembranes a re primarily lipid and lipids can easily enter cells, carrying afoods flavor with them -a diet should have less than 30% fat, 55-65% carbs,and 10-15% protein -lipids are important as a source of energy, insulation(adipose tissue), cushions for the internal organs, as a lubricant, as anemulsifying agent (cholesterol in bile), as a structural component of cells (1/6of brain is fat), cholesterol as a precursor molecule for vitamin D, cortisone,testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen -lipids are simplest biologicalmolecules and are composed mostly of C, H and a few Os -they are energy richbecause of the high C to H ratio -fat consists of a glycerol molecule connectedby ester bonds to a 3 fatty acid molecule (this is a tryglyceride) -if the bondsbetween the carbons are single bonds, the fatty acid is saturated (fat formed isa saturate) -if they have multiple bonds, it is an unsaturated fat -apolysaturate is more than one fatty acid held together by single bonds -multiplebonds can be bro ken and extra hydrogens added through hydrogenation -shortchained fats of unsaturated fatty acids are soft with a low b.p. -long chainedfats of saturated fatty acids are harder with a high b.p. -length of chainsaffects boiling point the most -to make an oil from a solid, you musthydrogenate it Steroids: -saturated fatty acids can be converted to the steroidcholesterol -triglycerides are monitored more closely in the blood thancholesterol -the amount of saturates converted to cholesterol is genetic-abnormal genes can cause excessive production (1 gene = severe heart disease, 2= shortened life span) -liver produces cholesterol -steroids have a 5 ring shape-examples are androgens, estrogens, and cortisone Proteins: -there are 20 aminoacids, 8 of which are essential and can be converted into any of the other 12-protein rich foods are digested into amino acids and the body absorbs them tomake their own proteins -liver cells convert them into absent aminos =transaminofication -proteins ar e synthesized on ribosomes in the cytoplasms ofcells or on polysomes (ribosome chains0 -DNA codes proteins by copying its infoonto a shorter strand known as mRNA (m = a message to synthesize a protein) -themessage is received and a protein is synthesized -for synthesis all 20 arerequired -number, sequence and type of amino acids making up the protein is theprimary structure this is determined by DNA -secondary structure is thecoiling or pleating of amino acid chains, caused by rigid peptide bonds whichare bent by strong intermolecular attraction between hydrogens and oxygens ofevery fourth amino this results in a regular, repeating twist or an alphahelix-chains lie parallel to one another and form hydrogen bonds between themselves this is a beta sheet but is not very common -secondary structure is determinedby intermolecular bonds -tertiary structure refers to the folds in the coiledchain -this is called by a thiol called cysteine this can form a bridge whenit meets another cyste ine -when 2 cysteines meet, a disulfide link is formed-insulin has 6 cysteine amino acids and forms 3 bridges and a slightly globularprotein -the more cysteine amino acids there are, the more folds or joints thatresult and the more globular the protein is -globular proteins are thedoers that function because they have a particular shape due to thecysteine-cysteine sulfur bridges -some proteins may be a bunch of polypeptidechains close together -this is quaternary structure, which very few proteinshave -all proteins have a primary and secondary structure, but few have atertiary structure, and even fewer a quaternary -proteins can be 50-50,000 aminoacids long -amino acids are joined by peptide bonds, a covalent bond between theC of one amino acid and the N of a neighbour -a polypeptide chain is a string ofaminos not long enough to be a protein -amino acids are so named because oftheir two functional groups, the amine group and the carboxylic acid groupNucleic Acids: -all living cells contain DNA and RNA -these carry instructionsfor making proteins and specify the sequence in which amino acids should belinked together -DNA and RNA are polynucleotides, polymers of nucleotides-nucleotides consist of a phosphate group + a pentose + a nitrogenous base -theycan be linked together by condensation to form a polynucleotide -if a nucleotidecontains ribose, it becomes Ribo Nucleic Acid -these are always just a singlestrand, but may be looped into 3 dimensional shapes -if the nucleotide containsdeoxyribose, Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid results -DNA molecules are far longer thanRNA molecules, and can never contain Uracil -4 possible bases are adenine,guanine, cytosine, and thymine -DNA molecules contain two polynucleotidestrands, held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases -hydrogen bonds canonly be formed between specific base pairs: Adenine Thymine Cytosine Guanine-a sense strand is a sequence of bases that tells the order in which to stringtogether the amino acids -a le ngth of DNA coding the sequence for a polypeptideis called a gene -three bases, a codon, specify an amino acid -there are 64possible arrangements of bases in a codon -polypeptides are made when 2 strandsof DNA split up and an RNA molecule builds up against the sense strand -basesequence of RNA must match that of the DNA molecule -a complete RNA moleculethen peels off and travels to the location where polypeptides are made -sequenceof bases on a DNA molecule is the same for a human or a bacteria OtherNucleotides: -a slightly different version of one of the nucleotides that formsRNA is ATP -ATP contains ribose, adenine and 3 phosphate groups instead of 1-phosphate groups may be lost one at a time to make ADP (di) or AMP (mono) -allliving cells make ATP as an energy currency, it is produced constantly -ATPmolecules usually last less than a minute before being broken down -~40 kg isproduced in a day -if a cell needs energy, it hydrolyses ATP and releases energyin small packets NAD: -con tains ribose sugar, adenine and 2 nucleotides -onenucleotide does not contain any of the 5 bases, but instead a nicotinamide ring-they can accept hydrogens and become NADH -hydrogens are accepted or passed onduring respiration or photosynthesis. The Importance of a Formal Education Essay